Foundations

Carbon moves through biological, oceanic, atmospheric and geological reservoirs.

Fossil assemblages can constrain relative age and depositional environment through observed succession and known ecological context.

Mechanical weathering changes fragment size; chemical weathering transforms or dissolves minerals through reactions such as hydrolysis and oxidation.

Dissolved inorganic carbon includes aqueous CO₂/carbonic-acid convention, bicarbonate and carbonate.

For a reversible one-to-one receptor/ligand interaction at equilibrium, the dissociation constant relates free receptor, free ligand and complex concentrations.

Ligand binding at one site can alter affinity or activity at another through coupling of protein states.