Foundations

A survey's detected density is the underlying observable distribution multiplied by a selection probability.

The Dublin Secret Model 1 benchmark compares three actual 3D magnetotelluric reconstructions of a spiral conductor from synthetic impedance data.

Schiffler and colleagues validate a 3D EM inversion implementation using five synthetic anomalies and compare recovered structures across survey observables.

GR with cold dark matter is the established cosmological comparison baseline.

A constant Λ is the minimal GR acceleration baseline; dynamical fields require additional assumptions and parameters.

Radiation-GRMHD couples the matter-plus-magnetic stress tensor to a radiation tensor with opposite four-force sources, so their sum is covariantly conserved.

Stress and strain need a loading geometry and a constitutive range.

A mineral species and a rock aggregate have different identifying features.

Crust–mantle–core and lithosphere–asthenosphere partition Earth by different properties.

A coordinate pair needs a reference surface, origin and convention.

Flattening Earth's curved reference surface requires a choice of distortions.

Height above a geometric reference is not automatically height above a gravity reference.

Axial tilt changes the angle and duration of sunlight in opposite hemispheres.

A harmful physical process and the potential losses it creates are different quantities.

Modern process evidence informs geological interpretation only with the past boundary conditions.

Phases change the visible illuminated fraction; they are not Earth's shadow moving across the Moon.

New or full Moon is necessary for the corresponding eclipse but does not guarantee alignment.

A scoped naming convention distinguishes planets, dwarf planets, small bodies and satellites.

The astronomical unit and light-year measure lengths, with different defining conventions.

A source location or magnitude does not describe the shaking experienced at every site.

Composition and temperature structure describe different features of Earth's atmosphere.

Surface drainage boundaries depend on the chosen outlet and need not bound groundwater flow.

A sky direction is an angular observation, not an object's three-dimensional distance.

Celestial angular coordinates require a declared reference system and date conventions.