Foundations

A heat pump moves heat as well as consuming work.

A collision length depends on number density and cross section.

Neutral matter can contain both positive and negative charge.

Charge mobility and polarization are different from net charging.

Equilibrium field vanishes in the conducting material, including a charged conductor.

Voltage is energy change per unit charge.

Current measures signed charge flow across a surface.

Resistance belongs to a device geometry; resistivity is a material response.

Series shares current; parallel shares voltage.

Voltage times signed current measures element power.

An emf is an energy-per-charge quantity, not a force.

Capacitor network rules differ from resistor rules.

Charging work produces electric-field energy.

Induction responds to flux change, not simply to the presence of a magnetic field.

Inductive storage and resistive loss are separate.

Field geometry follows the current distribution.

Turns change voltage and current while conserving ideal power.

Reflection angles are measured from the local normal.

Total reflected flux does not mean zero field beyond the interface.

A virtual image is formed by ray extensions, not actual ray convergence.

Photon frequency sets maximum photoelectron energy in the single-photon model.

A momentum state has a spatial wave phase.

Scaling the system amount is different from changing its state.

A system boundary determines which transfers count as exchanges.

These terms name different scientific roles rather than steps in a promotion ladder.

Heat can be transferred by microscopic interactions, fluid motion or electromagnetic radiation.

The coefficient h represents a specified surface–fluid transfer situation.

An approximately uniform-temperature body can have an exponential thermal response.

Emission and absorption must both enter a net radiative heat balance.

A solid angle measures a cone of directions rather than a plane rotation.