Foundations

A photoheated atmosphere couples fluid transport, ionization/recombination, absorption and radiative cooling.

For an independently conserved homogeneous component with constant equation-of-state w, density scales with a as a^-3(1+w).

Combining a conserved component with flat single-component Friedmann expansion yields matter a∝t^(2/3), radiation a∝t^(1/2) and vacuum exponential expansion.

Cosmological parameter inference combines data likelihoods with model priors and nuisance parameters for foregrounds, calibration and selection.

DESI DR2 Lyman-alpha Alcock–Paczyński measurements add redshift-dependent geometry information with blinded validation and contaminant controls.

A reaction network lists its species and reactions, evolves abundances with a stoichiometric matrix and couples nuclear energy release and escaping neutrino losses to stellar energy.

Thermal rates average microscopic cross sections over a specified particle distribution.

Core-collapse models couple dense-matter EOS, fluid motion and flavor/energy-dependent neutrino radiation.

Dense-matter inference combines nuclear constraints, pulse-profile models and gravitational-wave likelihoods with an EOS parameterization.

Ideal GRMHD evolves rest-mass and stress-energy conservation with magnetic induction in a specified spacetime.

Weak well-coupled magnetic fields can destabilize outwardly decreasing differential rotation and drive angular-momentum transport.

Particle-in-cell reconnection experiments evolve fields and particle distributions rather than assume a thermal fluid closure.

For isotropic power-law electrons in a uniform field, optically thin synchrotron has a conditional spectral slope and maximum linear polarization.

Inverse Compton energy gain depends on incident angle and the photon energy in the electron rest frame.

Two photons can produce an electron–positron pair only above an angle-dependent invariant threshold.

A particle realization approximates a smooth collisionless distribution; force softening and time integration control numerical encounters and force error.

Finite-volume hydrodynamics updates conserved quantities using fluxes across cell boundaries; moving faces require fluxes in the face frame.

Rotating nonaxisymmetric potentials exchange angular momentum at corotation and Lindblad resonances.

Chemical evolution follows an element's removal into stars, delayed stellar returns and inflow/outflow.

Unresolved star formation, cooling and feedback need declared subgrid closures and calibrated parameter ranges.

Relativistic perturbation variables depend on the coordinate gauge.

Angular moments of photon/neutrino distributions form a Boltzmann hierarchy coupled to metric and fluid equations.

Inflationary models relate a stated field action and reheating history to scalar/tensor predictions; observations constrain those predictions rather than identify one unique inflaton.

A unique microscopic origin of primordial perturbations is not established by the inspected evidence.

Gravitational evidence constrains additional matter or modified gravitational descriptions under declared assumptions; it does not name a particle.

The dominant dark-matter identity remains unresolved in the inspected evidence.

Acceleration is inferred through a framework relating expansion and structure to observations.

The physical cause of cosmic acceleration remains unresolved in the inspected sources.

A quasi-static poroelastic model couples elastic displacement to pore pressure and fluid storage.

EM inversion links conductivity/permeability parameters to source, fields and receiver response.