Foundations

UDP exchanges addressed messages without adding reliable stream delivery.

DNS distributes typed resource records through a delegated naming hierarchy.

A combinational output depends on current valid inputs after a bounded settling delay.

Logic gates compute Boolean functions with truth values 0 and 1.

Sequential circuits retain state, so current inputs alone do not determine their behavior.

Stored instructions control computation through a specified hardware/software interface.

Displacement compares endpoints; distance measures the travelled path.

Closed formulas require constant acceleration over the interval.

Newtonian force balances need an inertial frame or explicit inertial terms.

A constant speed can still have an acceleration.

Mass is in kilograms; gravitational weight is a force.

Contact geometry determines the force direction.

List forces on the selected body once.

Static friction is a responsive force with an approximate limit.

Terminal speed depends on the chosen drag model.

Time-integrated net force changes momentum.

Momentum conservation and kinetic-energy conservation are different.

Potential-energy differences encode path-independent work.

Mechanical energy is only part of the total energy.

A linear spring restores displacement toward equilibrium.

Power measures the rate of work or energy transfer.

Rotation stores kinetic energy determined by mass distribution.

No slip constrains velocity at the contact point.

Zero net force alone does not prevent rotation.

Stress and strain need a loading geometry and a constitutive range.

Density is mass per volume; pressure is normal force per area.

A zero gauge reading need not be a vacuum.

A pressure change is transmitted; pressure need not be equal at different heights.

Viscosity relates shear stress to velocity gradient.

Interface forces can support pressure jumps and capillary columns.