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Showing 1681–1709 of 1709 reference entries

Measurement · PhysicsRadiant flux, intensity, irradiance, exitance and radiance

Optical power, directional power and surface densities are different quantities.

DefinitionMeasurement · PhysicsPhotometric weighting, lumen, candela, lux and luminance

Photometry weights radiation with a specified standard visual response.

DefinitionMeasurementWriting SI quantities and unit symbols

Symbol form, spacing and parentheses preserve the meaning of reported quantities.

DefinitionMeasurementGram prefixes and the kilogram exception

Mass prefixes attach to gram even though kilogram is the SI base unit.

DefinitionMeasurementRounding a result with its uncertainty

Report useful digits without treating extra digits as proof of accuracy.

MethodMeasurement · Physics · ChemistryCommon non-SI units and exact SI conversions

Common non-SI unit names require their correct SI scale factors.

DefinitionPhysics · ChemistryGas pressure as molecular momentum transfer

Molecular collisions link macroscopic pressure to random translational motion.

ModelChemistry · PhysicsOrdinary aggregate states and bulk behavior

Solid, liquid and gas describe bulk behavior rather than chemical identity.

ModelChemistryInferring empirical and molecular formulas from composition

Element mass ratios become atom ratios through molar masses, with uncertainty and sample identity retained.

MethodChemistryLewis structures and valence-electron accounting

A Lewis diagram accounts for bonding and nonbonding valence electrons in a specified connectivity.

MethodChemistryElectron-domain geometry and molecular shape

VSEPR distinguishes the arrangement of electron regions from the positions of atoms.

ModelChemistryElectronegativity, bond polarity and molecular polarity

Polar bonds can cancel in a molecule; molecular geometry matters.

ModelChemistrySolutions, solutes, solvents and solvation

Dissolution disperses specified molecular or ionic species in a solvent.

DefinitionChemistrySolubility, saturation and supersaturation

A saturation limit is an equilibrium property under specified conditions, not a synonym for concentration.

DefinitionChemistryFiltration separates retained solids from a fluid

Ordinary filtration separates undissolved particles; dissolved species can remain in the filtrate.

MethodChemistryDistillation and vapor–liquid composition

Distillation uses vapor–liquid partitioning and condensation, with a limit at an azeotrope.

MethodBiologyGene, allele, genotype and phenotype

Genomic sequence variants and observable traits describe different levels of biological information.

DefinitionBiology · ChemistryEnzyme substrates, active sites and induced fit

Substrate recognition and catalysis depend on a dynamic molecular environment.

ModelBiology · ChemistryMonomers, polymers and hydrolysis

Covalent subunit linkage and water-assisted cleavage explain biological polymer structure.

DefinitionBiology · ChemistrySugars, glycosidic linkages and polysaccharides

Sugar connectivity distinguishes energy-storage and structural polysaccharides.

DefinitionBiology · ChemistryFatty acids, storage lipids and membrane lipids

Lipids include several architectures rather than one repeating-monomer polymer class.

DefinitionBiology · ChemistryAmino-acid residues and peptide linkages

The peptide backbone and variable side chains are different parts of protein structure.

DefinitionBiology · ChemistryNucleotides and DNA/RNA backbone polarity

Bases carry sequence information on a chemically directional sugar–phosphate backbone.

DefinitionBiologyCell membrane, cell wall, cytosol and compartments

A cell's boundary, fluid interior and specialized structures have different roles.

DefinitionEarth & cosmos · MeasurementEarthquake location, source magnitude and local intensity

A source location or magnitude does not describe the shaking experienced at every site.

DefinitionEarth & cosmosAtmospheric composition and thermal layers

Composition and temperature structure describe different features of Earth's atmosphere.

ModelEarth & cosmosDrainage basins, outlets and water divides

Surface drainage boundaries depend on the chosen outlet and need not bound groundwater flow.

DefinitionEarth & cosmosThe celestial sphere and the observer's sky

A sky direction is an angular observation, not an object's three-dimensional distance.

ModelEarth & cosmos · MeasurementRight ascension, declination and reference epochs

Celestial angular coordinates require a declared reference system and date conventions.

Definition
DefinitionSource checked

Amino-acid residues and peptide linkages

BiologyChemistry

The peptide backbone and variable side chains are different parts of protein structure.

Key knowledge

The usual protein amino-acid building blocks have an alpha carbon associated with an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen and a variable side chain. A peptide linkage connects a residue's carbonyl carbon to another residue's nitrogen, producing a polypeptide backbone. Sequence specifies the order of residues; side-chain chemistry influences interactions and folding. A linear unmodified chain has an amino end and a carboxyl end, conventionally called N and C termini.

Conditions and scope

  • Ionization depends on pH; proline's nitrogen is part of a ring, and glycine has hydrogen as its side chain.
  • This describes the usual peptide backbone. Terminal modification, chain cyclization and post-translational chemistry require their own descriptions.
Sources · 3

References

Sources retain their recorded scope. A source link alone does not establish verification of every statement.

  1. Biology 2e (2018), §3.4 ProteinsMary Ann Clark, Matthew Douglas and Jung Choi · OpenStax/Rice UniversityTextbook chapteropenstax.orgRead source
  2. Organic Chemistry (2023), §26.1 Structures of amino acidsJohn McMurry · OpenStax/Rice UniversityTextbook chapteropenstax.orgRead source
  3. Biology XI: BiomoleculesNCERTTextbook chapter · PDFncert.nic.inRead source

Evidence and review

Alpha-amino-acid side chains, the peptide linkage and bounded polypeptide directionality.

2026-10-10 · Independent Mathematics and Information editor (AI editorial/source review; not the Chemistry/Biology/Earth author). The specified introductory inventory has no unresolved demonstrated material gap after the changes and body-based reuse. Existing advanced references retain their historical scoped approvals. English-only reference prose and explicit Lithuanian-translation-pending status are preserved.

Foundational review

2026-10-10 · Independent AI editorial inspection of this new compact reference entry, its equations, applicability, sources and knowledge connections.

Sources from other places

Agreement within this scope

Alpha-amino-acid groups and peptide-linked polypeptide chains.

Sequence and side-chain chemistry are distinct from a folded structure.

  • NCERT

    • Biology XI: Biomolecules
      IndiaEnglish

      §9.1, printed pp105–106: amino acids, fatty acids and glycerides; §9.3–9.6, printed pp108–111: polymers, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleotides; §9.8.2–9.8.4, printed pp114–116: active site, induced fit and conditions; §9.8.5, printed p117: hydrolysis examples

Related reference entries

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Scientific relationships · 2 / 2

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  1. Related to
    Relationship sources · 2

    Linked statements

    • The usual protein amino-acid building blocks have an alpha carbon associated with an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen and a variable side chain. A peptide linkage connects a residue's carbonyl carbon to another residue's nitrogen, producing a polypeptide backbone. Sequence specifies the order of residues; side-chain chemistry influences interactions and folding. A linear unmodified chain has an amino end and a carboxyl end, conventionally called N and C termini.

    Residue order and peptide backbone describe the primary-structure substrate for protein folding.

  2. Related to
    Relationship sources · 2

    Linked statements

    • The usual protein amino-acid building blocks have an alpha carbon associated with an amino group, a carboxyl group, hydrogen and a variable side chain. A peptide linkage connects a residue's carbonyl carbon to another residue's nitrogen, producing a polypeptide backbone. Sequence specifies the order of residues; side-chain chemistry influences interactions and folding. A linear unmodified chain has an amino end and a carboxyl end, conventionally called N and C termini.

    The amino-acid sequence produced by translation is carried by a chemically directional peptide chain.

Entry detailsPermanent link to this entry ↗
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foundation-bio-amino-acid-peptide
Revision
foundations-audit.1
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Foundational core completion